8-rad Panzersp채hwagen "Puma" mit 5 cm Pak 39/L60

On August 5th, 1940, an order was given to design an eight-wheeled armored car similar in design to the Sd. Kfz. 231. Unlike the previous design, where the armored body was bolted to the chassis, the Sd. Kfz. 234 armored hull was to serve as the chassis, thereby strengthening the overall integrity of the vehicle. Furthermore, the armored car was to have heavier armor and a 12-cylinder air-cooled diesel engine that would enable it to operate in the hot climate of North Africa as well as the cold steppes of western Russia. Two trial versions were built and an initial order was made for 500 vehicles, which was later increased to 1,500. The initial requirement was for a vehicle equipped with the 5cm KwK 39/1 gun (Sd. Kfz. 234/2). In January 1944, the order was cut to limit the Puma production to 100 vehicles .

Sd.Kfz. 234/2 "Puma"

This version was armed with a 5 cm KwK 39/1 L/60 gun previously used on Panzerkampfwagen III. It weighed nearly 12 tons but was still capable of 85 km/h (53 mph). It was one of the best armored cars available, mainly due to the cannon which made it capable of countering some light tanks as well as infantry. The armored car could be driven backwards by the radio operator in an emergency as well. Production started in 1943 but was stopped in the second half of 1944. The other three 234 variants were kept in production until the end of the war.

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Be careful with the statement "Puma" when researching. [1] It was never officially known as 'Puma'. Apparently German veterans called all 8-wheeled armoured cars "Puma's" including and starting with the Sd.Kfz.231, predecessor to the Sd.Kfz.234/2. This has caused a considerable distortion of the unit delivery/ownership of Sd.Kfz. 234/2 "Puma", with only 100 vehicles built. For example there were NO Sd.Kfz. 234/2 "Puma" at the Arnhem Bridge September 1944, they were Sd.Kfz.231s! American reports call every German 8-wheeled recce vehicle a "Puma". SS AA 1 veterans tend to talk about "2cm Puma" (234/1), "5cm Puma" (234/2) and "Stummel" (234/3). Stummel seems to be usual for all late war vehicles equipped with the L24 short barreled 7,5cm gun.

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The 234/2 production

Tom Jentz states issues with the manufacture of the mantlet parts caused delays which affected production through January and February 1944. This would mean that the production target of 30 units per month was likely not met. We know that in the first month vehicles were completed (December 1943) this amounted to 5 234/2, this gives 95 more units to complete before April 1944 when production was to end. A Dienstvorschrift issued in late summer 1944 actually states that the 234/2 is a construction for tropical conditions that it was no longer for production.

100 Puma were produced. Following numbers were reported by panzer divisions:-

1/PzAA2 (2PD) 25 on 1Jun44, St.Komp/PzAA7 (7PD) 7 on 1Jan45 (Prev. in 1/PzAA7, St.Komp/PzAA20 (20PD) 13 on 1Jan45, 1/PzALA130 (PzLehr) 26 on 1Jun44, St.Komp/SS PzAA1 (1SS PD) 16 on 15Jun44, 3 on 1Dec44 (If not survivors from Normandy), for total of 90.

These divisions may well account for the whole production run. 7th Panzer probably had at least 12 to start with.

2nd PD and Panzer Lehr had enough to follow official KStN 1162a of 1st October 1943. Other divisional PzAA's used them to replace missing heavy armoured cars in Armd. Car Coy. KStN 1162d of 1st March 1944, or Staff and Staff Company KStN 1109(gp)(fg) of 1st April 1944.

Here is KStN 1162a of 1st October 1943 in summary:-

Group Leader
1 Officer, 3 NCO's, 8 Men; 6 R, 5 P, 2 MP, 1 lmg, 1 Puma, 2 VW, 2 lt m/c's, 2 kettenkrad

1st Platoon
1 Officer, 9 NCO's, 14 Men; 24 P, 6 MP, 6 lmg, 6 Puma

2nd Platoon
Same as 1st

3rd Platoon
As before but deduct officer and add 1 NCO

4th Platoon
As 3rd Platoon

Vehicle Maintenance Group
4 NCO's, 9 Men; 12 R, 1 P, 2tonne comml. SdKfz11, 2 3tonne comml

Combat Train
5 NCO's, 9 Men; 9 R, 4 P, 1 MP; VW, 3tonne comml. (Ammo), 3tonne comml. (Ammo + Equipt.), 3 tonne comml. (Fuel), Field kitchen Vehicle

Baggage Train
1 NCO, 3 Men; 4 R; 3 tonne comml.

Total, 3 Officers, 51 NCO's, 85 Men, 31 Rifles, 106 Pistols, 27 MP38/40, 25 lmg's, 25 Puma plus soft skin transport.

Panzer Tracts series by Thomas L. Jentz and Hilary Louis Doyle. The Panzer Tracts series is far more accurate.

Panzer Tracts No. 13 lists the following production figures;

234/1-about 230
234/2-100 (chassis numbers 5001-5100)
234/3-about 90
234/4-about 90

Regarding the employment of the 234/2. At first they deployed in the 1.Kompanie of the Panzer-Aufklaerung-Abteilung of only two divisions, 2.Panzer-Division and Panzer-Lehr-Division. The KStN 1162a, dated 01-10-43, called for a total of 25 234/2s.

In the spring of 1944 a new KStN, 1109(fG), dated 01-04-44, was published calling for 16 armored cars in the Panzer-Aufklaerung-Abteilung headquarter company armored car platoon. The 1.SS.Panzer and 20.Panzer-Divisions converted to the new TO&E and had 16 234/2s.

Later, when the Panzer-Divisions were re-fitted in the fall of 1944, the 234/2 were used as replacements within the Panzer-Aufklaerung-Abteilung HQ company rather than make new units. In that case it amount of 234/2s varied.

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[1] Half the fun of being a student of the German Military in World War II is staying totally confused!!! I have learned that what was on paper and what actually happened are two totally different things. I have been told by more than one German officer veteran that the KStN were "Dream Sheets" and very seldom reflected the composition of a unit in the field. This is especially true during the last two years of the war. The PUMA allocation is a perfect example. It appears that in "Landser jargon" they described both the SdKfz. 234/2 and the SdKfz. 234/4 as "Pumas". I have encountered this a number of times. I have been told that a former SdKfz. 234/2 "Puma" commander who served with 1./Pz.ALA 130 recalled helping train soldiers from 1./Pz.AA 6 (6. Panzer Division) on the SdKfz. 234/2 at Krampnitz. I don't put much faith in vehicle markings either. In the field and in combat the Germans very last concern was if a vehicle had the correct paint job or markings! Fact is also, if you show some veterans a pic of a 231/232 they insist that this is a Puma. For these men, everything with 8 wheels is a Puma, but who am I to blame them?

- Hans Weber

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Film 1

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Modelling 1

Modelling 2

Although the Staghound armoured car was an American product, it was not used by the American forces, all the output going to the British army and other Allied and Commonwealth forces. The design had its origins in a US Army requirement for a heavy armoured car which was not produced despite the building of prototypes since the requirement was changed to a call for a medium armoured car. Following the drawing up of a specification, which was much influenced by input from British experience in combat, two vehicles emerged. One was the Light Armoured Car T17, a 6x6 vehicle by Ford, and the other the Light Armored Car T17E1 from Chevrolet.

Only relatively few of the 6x6 T17 armoured cars were produced, as by the time the type was ready for production the requirement for a large 6x6 vehicle appeared to have passed. However, the 4x4 T17E1 went into large-scale production even though the US Army no longer had any requirement for the design. The British Tank Mission asked for an initial batch of 300, but more orders followed and by the end of 1942 the first examples were coming off the production lines, After the perilous journey across the Atlantic the T17E l s were issued to British and Commonwealth units as the Staghound Mk I.

The Staghound emerged as a large and well-armoured vehicle with a turret mounting a 37-mm (1.46-in) gun and a co-axial 7.62-mm (0.3-in) Browning machine-gun. The vehicle looked good and in service proved to be easy to drive and maintain, and in addition was fast and had a good operational range. The type first went into action in Italy in 1943, where it proved well able to deal with the difficult conditions that prevailed. Thereafter the Staghound was issued to Canadian, New Zealand, Indian and Belgian units. The Staghound had several unusual features for the day, not the least of which was the fully automatic hydraulic transmission. The vehicle had two engines mounted side-by-side at the rear, and the crew were well provided with periscopes. The turret was hydraulically traversed, and additional armament was provided by two more 7.62- mm (0.3-in) Browning machine-guns, one pintle-mounted for AA use and the other in the hull front.

Once the Staghound was in service several variations appeared. One was the fitting of a 76.2-mm (3-m) tank howitzer in place of the 37-mm (1.46-in) gun for use as a close-support weapon. The Americans had produced the T17E3 version with a short 75-mm (2.95-in) howitzer in the turret, but with the introduction of the British version, known as the Staghound Mk II, this was not further developed. Another British innovation was the Staghound Mk III, a rather drastic conversion of the vehicle to accommodate a Crusader tank turret mounting a 75-mm (2.95-in) gun. Small numbers of these were issued to the heavy troops of armoured car regiments during 1944. A production variant developed in the USA was the Staghound AA (T17E2) which had the usual turret replaced by a new power operated turret mounting two 12.7-mm (0.5-in) Browning machine guns for anti-aircraft use. An order for 1,000 of these was placed, but production ceased in April 1944 after 789 had been built: by then the decline of the Luftwaffe was such that there no longer seemed to be any real need for the type.

There were numerous other conversions and local variations of the Staghound, ranging from mine clearing experimental models pushing heavy rollers to the Staghound Command, a version with the turret removed and increased internal stowage for radios, plus a folding canvas tilt. Local modifications such as the provision of extra external stowage boxes were common, and extras such as smoke dischargers and machine-guns were added for additional protection. After 1945 the Staghound served on in the British army for several years, and the type was also passed to such nations as India, South Africa and Denmark (which used the Staghound Mk III for some years). The Staghound was a sturdy and well-liked armoured car that gave excellent service.

T17E Variants

* T17E1: 4x4 version built by Chevrolet for Britain. 2,687 - 2,844 units were produced.

Staghound Mk I

The T17E1 was armed with a 37 mm M6 gun, a coaxial Browning 1919A4 .30 cal machine gun and a 2-inch smoke mortar in a rotating turret. In the hull was mounted a Browning 1919A4 .30 cal machine gun. Some T17E1 had an additional Browning 1919A4 .30 cal machine gun for anti-aircraft defence.

The turret had power traverse and featured a turret basket (which limited the amount of internal crew storage). The 37mm gun was gyroscopically stabilized.

This variant had a crew of 5, commander, loader, gunner, and hull machine gunner.

This variant saw combat with the British 8th Army, Australian, Canadian, New Zealand, Indian, and Belgian units.

Staghound Mk II

This was a field conversion that had a three inch howitzer close support weapon mounted in place of the 37mm gun in the turret. It is not known how many were converted.

Staghound Mk III

Had a modified turret from a Crusader tank fitted with the Ordnance QF 75 mm gun and no bow machine gun. It was supplied to heavy troops of armoured car regiments. The total number ordered was around 100.

Staghound Command

The turret was removed and extra wireless equipment was installed.

* T17E2 (Staghound AA)

T17E1 fitted with a Frazer-Nash turret mounting two M2 Browning heavy machine guns. 2,610 rounds were carried. The turret was open topped and had an electric-hydraulic traverse system with a maximum slew rate of 55 degrees a second.

This variant had a crew of 3, commander/gunner, loader and driver.

789 units were produced between October 1943 and April 1944, when production stopped.

* T17E3

T17E1 fitted with the turret of 75mm Howitzer Motor Carriage M8, carrying the 75mm M2/M3 howitzer. This was trialled in December 1943, but never reached production.

Staghounds

The basic operating principle of a thermobaric or fuel-air explosive (FAE) is analogous to a dust cloud explosion, similar to those that occasionally occur in coal mines or grain silos. In the latter case, fine particles of grain dust in the air can suddenly ignite with a spark, setting off a huge conflagration in a chain-like reaction. Unlike a dust cloud explosion, however, most FAE munitions employ a volatile liquid such as ethylene oxide. An FAE generally consists of a fuel container and two separate explosive charges. At a predetermined altitude, the initial explosive charge ruptures the fuel container, diffusing the fuel, which then mixes with air, creating a vapor cloud. The second explosive charge ignites the vapor cloud, creating a massive explosion accompanied by an enormous shock wave and intense heat. The explosion can generate temperatures ranging as high as 2,500째 to 3,000째 Celsius. The shock wave can travel at speeds of more than 9,800 feet per second, creating overpressures of 427 pounds per square inch at the center of the explosion, flattening nearby structures. Anyone caught within the immediate blast area would be crushed by the intense pressure. Even those along the blast's fringes are likely to suffer serious internal injuries caused by the subsequent vacuum created by the shock wave. For this reason, the Russian military sometimes refers to FAEs as vacuum bombs. Both U.S. and Russian military analysts have compared the effect of an FAE to that of a low-yield nuclear weapon. Additionally, the psychological effect of such a weapon is significant.

FAEs were initially developed by the United States for use in Vietnam. U.S. forces used them to clear landing strips and to destroy North Vietnamese tunnel complexes. Prompted by the U.S. program, the Soviet Union developed its own FAEs and may even have employed some of its earliest versions against the Chinese military during a border conflict in 1969. The Soviet military did use FAEs against entrenched mujahideen (Afghan and Arab resistance fighters) positions during its invasion and subsequent occupation of Afghanistan. Since that time, the Russian military has used FAEs on several occasions during military operations in Chechnya. From 1994 to 1996, Russian troops regularly used FAEs on entrenched Chechen separatist positions in the mountains outside of the city of Grozny. When the conflict resumed in 1999, the Russian military employed limited numbers of FAEs on separatist-controlled villages near Dagestan.

Later, when Russian conventional arms once again failed to dislodge Chechen separatists from their fortified mountain positions near Grozny, the Russian government again authorized the use of FAEs. Although both FAEs and chemical weapons were initially considered for use against the Chechens, the use of chemical weapons was ruled out, perhaps due to concern that such an action would violate the Chemical Weapons Convention. The use of FAEs is not limited by either international law or arms control agreements. Recently, some man-portable systems produced by the Russian military have been sold to the Chinese People's Liberation Army. These disposable, shoulder mounted devices fire a self-propelled shell containing ethylene oxide. Its effects-according to the manufacturer-are equivalent to those of a 122- millimeter howitzer shell.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, U.S. development of FAEs was primarily concentrated at the Naval Weapons Center in China Lake, California. FAEs developed at the China Lake facility proved their value in Operation Desert Storm, where they overwhelmed entrenched Iraqi forces and cleared minefields in preparation for the allied ground attack. Although FAEs are effective against any "soft target," such as personnel and light structures, they have proven to be particularly useful against minefields, bunkers, and caves.

Press reports during Operation Desert Storm often mistakenly identified FAEs as Daisy Cutters. In fact, the BLU-82B Daisy Cutter is not an FAE, but rather a 15,000-pound conventional explosive that includes both the agent and oxidizer. By comparison, FAEs weigh between 500 and 2,000 pounds and are oxidized by exposure to the atmosphere. Due to the difficulty of maintaining the proper fuel-to-air mixture, it would be highly problematic to develop an FAE as large as a Daisy Cutter

Despite their proven battlefield utility, ten years after the end of Operation Desert Storm, the U.S. military had decommissioned all but a few hundred of its FAEs, probably due to their uncertain roles in future conflicts. This put the military in an unwelcome position as it prepared for operations in Afghanistan in late 2001: It faced a severe shortage of a weapon designed for use against precisely the targets that it now expected to encounter in Afghanistan. To resolve this situation, on October 11, 2001, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) began a 60-day effort to develop a new weapon specifically designed to defeat underground targets. The development team included members from the Air Force, the Department of Energy, the Naval Surface Warfare Center at Indian Head, Maryland, and private industry.

At the end of 67 days, the team unveiled the BLU 118/B "Thermobaric Weapon." The term thermobaric comes from the Greek words for heat (therme) and pressure (baros). The BLU 118/B has a fuel-air explosive warhead fitted onto the body of a BLU 109 Penetrator that can punch through hardened concrete structures. As such, the BLU 118/B possesses the penetrating ability of a BLU 109 Penetrator and the destructive capability of a fuel-air explosive. On December 14, 2001, the BLU 118/B successfully completed both static and flight tests conducted at the Nevada test site. These tests included fitting a BLU 118/B warhead onto a laser-guided weapon and "skipping" it into the mouth of a tunnel to simulate the targets that the DOD (Department of Defense) anticipated using it against in Afghanistan.

On December 21, 2001, Edward C. Aldridge, Undersecretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, announced that the BLU 118/B had completed testing and was being deployed to Afghanistan to support Operation Enduring Freedom. Less than 3 months later, on March 3, 2002, the BLU 118/B was used for the first time on an al-Qaeda cave complex located in the Gardez region of Afghanistan. In less than 5 months, the DTRA team had been able to develop, produce, test, and deploy a weapon system critical to U.S. success in Afghanistan.

Since the attacks on September 11, 2001, the United States has perceived a growing threat from rogue states and international terrorist organizations that are attempting to acquire nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons. Given the capabilities of current U.S. space-based reconnaissance satellites, clandestine NBC development and processing facilities are likely to be located underground. The U.S. Air Force and Navy are currently attempting to develop a conventional weapon capable of destroying a potential underground NBC target while limiting potential agent dispersal. The new BLU 118/B, with its ability to penetrate hardened structures and to produce significant amounts of heat, is a potentially significant step toward realizing this objective with a nonnuclear weapon.

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In 1983, the first Project 941 Akula ('Typhoon') SSBN appeared, a colossal 18,797-tonne (18,500-ton) boat armed with 24 R-39 Taifun (SS-N- 20 'Sturgeon') missiles. Unlike the 'Delta' and older SSBNs, the six 'Typhoons' were intended to spend up to a year on the seabed, surviving a nuclear exchange to make a 'second strike'.

The Typhoon class was developed under Project 941 as the Russian Akula class, meaning shark. It is sometimes confused with other submarines, as Akula is the name NATO uses to designate the Russian Project 971 Shchuka-B class attack submarines.

Typhoon submarines are among the quietest sea vessels in operation, being quieter and yet more maneuverable than their predecessors. Besides their missile armament, the Typhoon class features six torpedo tubes; two are designed to handle RPK-2 (SS-N-15) missiles or Type 53 torpedoes, and the other four are designed to launch RPK-7 (SS-N-16) missiles, Type 65 torpedoes, or mines. A Typhoon class submarine can stay submerged for periods up to 180 days in normal conditions, and potentially more if necessity arises (e.g. nuclear war).

Typhoon class submarines feature multiple pressure hulls that simplify internal design while making the vessel much wider than a normal submarine. In the main body of the sub, two Delta class pressure hulls lie parallel with a third, smaller pressure hull above them (which protrudes just below the sail), and two other pressure hulls for torpedoes and steering gear. This also greatly increases their survivability - even if one pressure hull is breached, the crew members in the other are safe and there is less potential for flooding. High internal volume also allows Typhoon class submarines to provide good conditions for their crews, including rooms for relaxation, a sauna and a swimming pool.

Six Typhoon class submarines were built, with each carrying 20 R-39 missiles (SS-N-20) with a maximum of 10 MIRV nuclear warheads each. Originally, the submarines were designated by hull numbers only. Names were later assigned to the four vessels retained by the Russian Navy, which were sponsored by either a city or company. The construction of an additional vessel (hull number TK-210) was canceled and never completed. Only the first of these submarines to be constructed, the Dmitry Donskoi, is still in active service with the Russian Navy, serving as a test platform for the Bulava (SS-NX-30) missile currently under development. The Arkhangelesk (TK-17) and Severstal (TK-20) remain commissioned, though not currently active with the Russian fleet. All the R-39 missiles have been retired. The Typhoons are slated to be replaced with the Borei class starting in 2007.

Noise Level?

The noise level of the Typhoon, it is noticed that the noise level of this SSBN is relatively low for her size, but I don't know exactly the noise level of her, so as the Oscar II. Just bear in mind that the Oscars are very quiet too and the Russians never afraid to send the Oscar to operations alone. The Oscar is probably not the most quiet thing Russia has put out to sea. I have no data on Oscar, but since they use the same powertrain as the Typhoon, we can use it as a standard. The Typhoon is rated at 150/130dB, which doesn't sound all THAT bad when you consider the fact the Typhoon is HUGE, broad, and has two nuclear reactors, two screws, and a double hull, all noise makers.

Larry Bond's Harpoon - Commander's Edition

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The BZ-4 "Zuk" was a Polish helicopter designed by Bronislaw Zurakowski, who commenced his career as a pre-WWII engineer for the RWD design bureau, and was the brother of Janusz Zurakowski, the famous test pilot in Avro Canada CF-105 "Arrow" programme.

This project featured many technical innovations. The first flight took place on 10 February 1959 with test pilot Ryszard Witkowski at the controls. Designed as a purely experimental machine, it suffered from several accidents.

The "Zuk" did not enter into production, in favor of the license-built Mil Mi-1 (although the "Zuk" was superior in many aspects).

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Built for Louis XIV in the late 17th Century. The famous sculptor Pierre Puget sumptuously decorated her. The stern ornamentation is still displayed in the Musee de la Marine in Paris. The REALE had a total length of 170 ft. and a width of 21 ft. She carried 31 pairs of oars, each manned by 7 men. There were 413 oarsmen on the vessel. Most oarsmen would have been either slaves or criminals condemned to life imprisonment. Arms consisted of 5 pieces in bronze concentrated in the bow under the forecastle on special sliding carriages, and by 11 swivel guns. The ship was equipped for ramming, although this kind of combat was rare by the 17th century. REALE was also equipped with two lateen sails, which during battle, were furled and the lateen yard chained to the masts.

By Wendy van Duivenvoorde

The document Traitté de la construction des galères is a valuable source for French naval architecture and the technical terminology of galleys. The text is extremely interesting for those who want to understand how the French built their galleys in the 17th century.

The manuscript was written in 1691 and is one of three documents from the cabinet of Louis XIV that are currently kept by the "Service Historique de la Marine" in the Queen's pavilion of the Castle of Vincennes. The three documents, all dating to the 17th century, are:

1. Mémoire sur la manoeuvres et sur les agrèz d'une galères
2. Figures de la première et de la seconde partie de la construction , et du mémoire de agrèz d'une galère senzille
3. Traitté de la construction des galères

The Traitté de la construction des galères is written in two sections. The first part consists of 166 numbered pages (plus three tables) and the second of 352 pages (plus 14 pages of tables).

In the first section of the manuscript the overall concept of the galley's hull and those timbers determining its shape are discussed. This part deals with the theory of the galley's design. The author describes the steps that one has to take to design a galley and applies this to a galère senzille (simple galley), one of three galley types mentioned in the manuscript used by the French navy. The 144-feet long galère senzille (from sternpost to stem) had 26 rowing benches, on each side, over the length of the vessel and was smaller than the other two types of galleys, galère réale and galère patrone (30-32 benches). The galère réale was the first galley or flagship, which carried the king, princes and usually the captain of the fleet. The galère patrone was the second galley of the king.

The second section of the manuscript focuses on the practical part of the construction. It discusses in detail the vessel's timbers, what their function is and what wood they are made of. There's a sail plan and an instruction on how to build the masts, the outfitting and lading of the galley.

The anonymous author had access to or must have been in contact with people providing him access to official documents of the royal shipyards. The handwriting of the text does not throughout the document and is from one hand, but the captions of the illustrations are of another hand. The author, therefore, must also have had help of a draftsman who illustrated his written work.

The manuscript was published by Jan Fennis in 1987 who added a very helpful and extensive vocabulary of the terminology used in the document at the end of the book.

Bibliography

Fennis, I. 1987. Manuel de construction des galères (1691). Amsterdam: APA - Holland University Press.

Rieth, E. 1996. Le maître-gabarit: la tablette et le trebuchet. Essai sur la conception non-graphique des careens du
Moyen Âge au XXe siècle. Mémoires de la section d'histoire des sciences et des techniques 9. Paris: CTHS.

Roques, G. 1987. "Manuel de construction des galères (1691), p.p. F. Fennis." Book Review. Revue de linguistique romane

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The development of the P-700 missile system started in 1969, but it was prolonged due to its complexity. It was assumed that the main source of information would be the satellite-based reconnaissance network, and from the very beginning, it was believed that the missile would be able to communicate with it directly after launch. The initial targeting information was to be received by a submarine cruising at a depth of about 30 m via a long-wave communications system from ground bases. The attack was to be coordinated with a group of long-range Tu-22M anti-ship aircraft. The underwater attack group consists of three to five Oscar and Oscar II subs, each armed with 24 P-700 missiles. The subs were to launch 70-120 such missiles against a single carrier group in a single mass attack. Roughly 30-50% of them are aimed at the carrier, while the others go after accompanying ships. Another salvo of 12-24 missiles was to be launched by aircraft, mainly to saturate the carrier group's defenses. The 30-knot speed of the Oscar I/II submarines enables a rapid approach to the launch area, about 450-500 km from the carrier group, and equally quick evasion after the attack.

The missile employs all of the techniques from the Bazalt / Vulkan. One lead missile per every 24 in the salvo flies at high altitude to reconnoiter the target, using its radar in active and passive modes. The active mode is used in quick "looks," then turned off to increase the penetration probability. The lead missile assigns targets to all subordinate missiles and communicates with the other lead missiles in the massive salvo to coordinate the attack. To achieve this, the missile is equipped with a powerful digital computer with three processors. The missile has an onboard integrated electronic-countermeasures suit for avoiding enemy anti-missile attacks using a combination of maneuver and deception jamming. The computer could order the missile to one of various stored courses with multiple altitudes. At high altitude, the missile speed is Mach 2.5, while at low (sea-skimming) altitude, it is Mach 1.5. Vital parts of the missile are armored to increase penetration against fire from Phalanx-type close-in weapon systems and against fragments of closely exploding air-defense missiles. The missile has a nuclear warhead with a selectable yield of 200 or 350 kT, or a conventional 750 kg unitary shaped charge, or bomblets (primary for anti-ship attack, but also useable against land targets: 750 x 1 kg, a mix of incendiary, AP, HE, which can be varied to meet requirements).

The missile has a KR-93 turbojet which is used in the cruising phase after the missile has been launched with the aid of an integral solid propellant booster in the tail. There are two sharply swept-back wings and two swept-back tail fins with a stabiliser on the top side of the missile. The seeker is reported to operate in ESM, J-band (10-12 GHz) and K-band (27-40 GHz) modes, using the last in the terminal phase to select specific targets.

The guidance system was developed by TsNII "Granit." The missile itself was developed in OKB-52 (later NPO Mashinostoyeniya) under the direction of Chelomey and, after his death in 1984, under Gerberd Efremov. First tests of the missile started in November 1975. Numerous difficulties prolonged the factory tests until 1979, and in autumn of that year, the missile began state trials. Technical difficulties further prolonged the trials through October 1983, and the missile was officially accepted into service in March 1983. At this time, the space-based Legenda reconnaissance system had been fully deployed. In addition to the satellite system, the submarine could also use its own MGK-540 Skat-3 sonar system for targeting.

Only two Oscar I ships have been built: the K-525 (Arkhangelsk ) and K-206 (Murmansk ), commissioned in 1981 and 1983, respectively. Both remain in service with the Northern Fleet, and each are armed with 24 missiles and have Kasatka-U receivers for communication with the Legenda system. The subs were followed by the "ultimate" Oscar II class, of which 11 have been commissioned since 1986. The Northern Fleet operates the K-119 (Voronezh ), K-148 (Krasnodar ), K-410 (Smolensk ), K-266 (Orel ), K-186 (Omsk ), and K-150 (Tomsk ). The K-141 (Kursk ) exploded and sank on August 13, 2000. The Pacific Fleet operates the K-132 (Irkutsk ), K-173 (Krasnoyarsk ), K-442 (Chelabinsk ), and K-456 (Vyluchinsk ). The Russian Navy plans to commission a replacement for the Kursk, the K-329 (Belgorod ).

The P-700 missile was also introduced to service as a weapon for surface ships. Four Kirov-class nuclear cruisers were commissioned between 1980 and 1998: the Kirov (renamed Admiral Ushakov), Frunze (renamed Admiral Lazarev ), Kalinin (renamed Admiral Nakhimov ) and Yuriy Andropov (renamed Pyotr Velikiy ). They were armed with 20 semi-vertical (with some oblique, like in submarines) P-700 Granit launchers. The system was directly adapted from submarines - to the point where the launchers have to be filled with water before launch. Fire control is provided by the MR-212 Vaygach-U onboard radar and other ships' electronic systems (the Gurzuf or Kantata-M passive reconnaissance systems, for example). The first two cruisers were withdrawn from service in the late 1990s, but the Admiral Nakhimov and the Pyotr Velikiy continue to serve. The only other ship equipped with P-700 Granit system is the aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznietsov , commissioned in 1990 and operational with Russian Northern Fleet since 1995. The ship is armed with 12 P-700 launchers.

The improved US ASW defenses around carrier battlegroups during the 1970s increasingly restricted the effectiveness of Soviet submarines carrying the Ametist/Malakhit (SS-N-7/9 Starbright/Siren) missiles. At the same time, the Soviet Navy wished to strengthen the defenses of its SSBN bastions, and this led to a requirement for a new missile. The P-700 Granit was developed as a more successful turbojet alternative to the Bazalt (SS-N-12 Sandbox) from which it was derived and whose liquid rocket proved troublesome. The long-range, sea-skimming anti-ship missile is launched from both surface ships and Oscar-class submarines. In the mid-course, it has an autopilot and can receive course updates by X-band datalink. It has a Ku-band active radar for terminal guidance and has a radar-homing capability.

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The spacious cabin was well decorated, soundproofed and had heating and air-conditioning systems.

Towards the end of 1933 the Potez 54 twin-engined military aircraft began flight testing and more than 200 were built. From this design was developed the Potez 62 civil transport which was very similar to the 54 bomber, but without the ugly and bulky lines. This aircraft was destined to form a major part of Air France's fleet, and saw service around the world in the years before the outbreak of World War II.

The Potez 62 had a high-mounted strut-braced wing, untapered except on the detachable tips, single fin and rudder, and retractable tailwheel undercarriage. The ply-covered wooden fuselage was rectangular in section but of streamlined profile; the wing was a metal structure with fabric covering except on the leading edge; and the tail surfaces were of wood with fabric covering.

The two 870-hp Gnome-Rhone 14Kirs Mistral Major supercharged radial engines were cowled and carried on a supporting structure attached to the fuselage lower longerons. They were strutbraced to the top of the fuselage. The engines drove three-blade propellers and the main undercarriage units retracted aft into the engine nacelles.

The Potez 62 had seats for 14 to 16 passengers in two cabins, smoking being allowed in one. The prototype flew on January 28, 1935, and in June, Air France began operating the type on its Paris-Marseilles- Rome services. The airline operated 12 of these aircraft under the designation Potez 62-0. In 1935 Potez produced the 62-1 with slightly swept-back wing and 720-hp Hispano-Suiza 12Xrs liquid-cooled engines. Air France operated ten Potez 62-ls and also had three 62-0s re-engined to 62-1 standard. In 1937 the unmodified 62-0s were fitted with 900-hp Gnome-RhOne 14N 16/17s with modified cowlings.

The Potez 62 fleet, in blue and silver livery, worked many of Air France's European services and in May 1936 two 62-ls began operating over the Buenos Aires to Santiago route which involved crossing the Andes. For their period the Potez 62s were quite fast but had mostly been replaced by more modern aircraft by the start of World War II. One had been lost in India in 1938 and at least one served with the Free French forces. The Potez 65 troop transport, flown in 1937, was a direct development of the Potez 62.

Potez 62-0

Type: passenger transport

Maker: Societe des Aeroplanes Henri Potez

Span: 22.45 m (73 ft 7 3⁄4 in)

Length: 17.32m (56ft 10 in)

Height: 3.9m (12ft 9 1⁄2 in)

Wing area: 76 m2 (818 sq ft)

Weight: maximum 7500 kg (16 534lb); empty 4895 kg (10791lb)

Powerplant: two 870-hp Gnome-Rhone 14Kirs Mistral Major 14-cylinder air-cooled radial engines

Performance: cruising speed 280km/h (174mph); range 1000km (621 miles)

Payload: seats for up to 16 passengers

Crew: 2 to 3

Production: 23 (both versions)

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The SdKfz 251/20 was known as 'Uhu' (owl) and carried an infra-red searchlight to illuminate targets for small groups of Panther tanks a t night. These variants were produced late in the war.

Panzer Grenadier Regiment Armoured, Panzer Division April 1944 PDF

The SdKfz 251 mittlerer Schützenpanzerwagenzerwagen series of halftracks had its origins in the same staff requirement as the SdKfz 250, but whereas the SdKfz 250 was a light 1-tonne vehicle the SdKfz 251 was classed as a medium (mittlerer) 3-tonne vehicle. The SdKfz 251 was a product of the Hanomag concern, based at Hanover, but the hull and superstructure were produced by Bussing-NAG. The basis of the SdKfz 251 was the SdKfz 11 leichter Zugkraftwagen 3-tonne artillery tractor halftrack, and the first production examples were issued to the 1st Panzer Division early in 1939.

The SdKfz 251 was primarily an armoured personnel carrier capable of carrying up to 12 men (a complete infantry section), and it was this SdKfz 251/1 version that was produced in the greatest numbers. Armed with at least two machine-guns plus the carried crew weapons, the SdKfz 251/1 was a very useful fighting platform capable of keeping up with the fast-moving Panzer formations. No fewer than four differing hull versions were introduced, mainly as a result of the need to churn out more and more vehicles to meet the ever-expanding demand of front-line troops, but that was nothing compared to the number of variants produced for other roles. Armour varied in thickness from 6 to 14.5 mm (0.24 to 0.57 in).

There were no fewer than 22 of these special-purpose variants, plus the usual local and unofficial modifications, They ranged from weapon carriers of all kinds to ambulances, and in between came observation vehicles for various forms of artillery, command and communications versions (both radio and telephone), versions carrying infra-red searchlights or antiaircraft weapons and even tank-killers mounting long 7.5-cm (2.95-in) antitank guns, The full listing is given elsewhere in this study, but perhaps the most powerful of the weapon carriers was a version of the basic SdKfz 251/1 known as the 'Stuka zum Fuss' (dive-bomber on foot, or infantry Stuka). This was the personnel carrier with a tubular steel frame over the hull that carried three rocket-launcher frames on each side of the vehicle; 28-cm (11- in) or 32-cm (12.6-m) rockets were mounted on these side frames while still in their carrying crates and fired at short ranges against fixed or area targets. They were powerful weapons, especially for street fighting, but other SdKfz 251 versions, such as the SdKfz 251/9 armed with a short 7.5-cm tank gun, were far more accurate. There was even a flamethrower version (the SdKfz 251/16) and one model was a late-war low-level anti-aircraft defence expedient, the SdKfz 251/21 mounting three 1.5-cm or 2-cm aircraft guns (the MG151) on a single mounting.

The SdKfz 251 in all its forms was produced in thousands and became a virtual 'trademark' of the Panzer formations. It was used on all fronts, usually in close co-operation with tanks, and although the early versions displayed some unfortunate reliability problems the type settled down to become a rugged and dependable vehicle in whatever role it was used.

Hanomag Sdkfz 251/1 --> Riveted vs. Welded bodies

The Germans almost exclusively used welding from their Pz 1As in the early thirties all the way through the end of the war. The only riveted tanks in German service during WW II were foreign built tanks. I do not know if this was a result of some early study the Germans did that showed the problems with riveted hulls or if it was just a result of the usual high standards of German manufacturing. I tend to believe the latter.

From the beginnings the German 250 and 251 were all welded. When 251 production was begun in Czechoslovakia theirs were riveted until they got set up for welding. I think less than 1000 riveted 251 versions were built.

Variants

There were 23 official variants, and sundry unofficial variants. Each variant is identified by a suffix to the model number. There was however some overlap in the variant numbers.

* Sdkfz 251/1 - Schützenpanzerwagen. Standard personnel carrier.

o 251/1-I - As above, but with intercom facilities

o 251/1-II - Rocket launcher (called "Stuka zu Fuß" (Walking Stuka) or Wurfrahmen 40) equipped with six side mounted frames for launching 280 mm or 320 mm Wurfkoerper rockets.

o SdKfz 251/1 - Falke Infrared detection equipment, to be used in combination with SdKfz 251/20 Uhu. Mostly Ausf. D variants.

* Sdkfz 251/2 - Schützenpanzerwagen (Granatwerfer). 81 mm Mortar carrier

* Sdkfz 251/3 - Funkpanzerwagen. Communications vehicle, fitted with extra radio equipment for command use.

o 251/3 I FuG8 and FuG5 Radios

o 251/3 II FuG8 and FuG5 Radios

o 251/3 III FuG7 and FuG1 Radios

o 251/3 IV FuG11 and FuG12 Radios (with 9 m telescopic mast); Command vehicle variant (Kommandowagen)

o 251/3 V FuG11 Radio

* Sdkfz 251/4 - Schützenpanzerwagen für Munition und Zubehör des leIG18. Gun-towing tractor, initially for use with the 7.5 cm leichtes Infanteriegeschütz 18. Later used with the 50 mm Pak 38, 75 mm PaK 40 and 105 mm Light Field Howitzer.

* Sdkfz 251/5 - Schützenpanzerwagen für Pionierzug. Assault Engineer vehicle with inflatable boats, assault bridges. Command Vehicle for Pioneer platoons (Pionierzug).

* Sdkfz 251/6 - Kommandopanzerwagen. Command version equipped with map boards, cipher and encoding machines.

* Sdkfz 251/7-I - Pionierpanzerwagen. Another assault engineer vehicle with fittings to carry assault bridge ramps on the sides.

o 251/7-II - As above but with different radio.

* Sdkfz 251/8-I - Krankenpanzerwagen. Armoured ambulance.

o 251/8-II - As above but with different radio.

* Sdkfz 251/9 - Schützenpanzerwagen (7.5cm KwK37). Equipped with a 75 mm L/24 low velocity gun, nicknamed "Stummel" ("stump").

* Sdkfz 251/10 - Schützenpanzerwagen (3.7cm PaK). Equipped with a 37 mm Pak 36 anti-tank gun mount.Platoon commander's variant.

* Sdkfz 251/11 - Fernsprechpanzerwagen. Telephone line layer.

* Sdkfz 251/12 - Messtrupp und Geratpanzerwagen. Survey and instrument carrier for artillery units.

* Sdkfz 251/13 - Schallaufnahmepanzerwagen. Sound recording carrier for artillery units.

* Sdkfz 251/14 - Schallaufnahmepanzerwagen. Sound recording carrier for artillery units.

* Sdkfz 251/15 - Lichtauswertepanzerwagen. Flash spotting carrier for artillery units.

* Sdkfz 251/16 - Flammpanzerwagen. Fitted with two flame projectors and initially a rear mounted flamethrower, detachable but still connected to the vehicle, to be operated by dismounted infantry. This was in addition to the standard MG34 machine gun and mount.

* Sdkfz 251/17 - Schützenpanzerwagen (2cm FlaK38). Anti-aircraft use with either a 20 mm Flak 30 or Flak 38. Also a variant called "Schwebenlafette", rare- but used.

* Sdkfz 251/18-I - Beobachtungspanzerwagen. Artillery observation vehicle.

o 251/18-Ia - Differences unknown, likely different radio fit.

o 251/18-II - Armored observation vehicle.

o 251/18-IIa - Different radio.

* Sdkfz 251/19 - Fernsprechbetriebspanzerwagen. Telephone exchange vehicle.

* Sdkfz 251/20 - Schützenpanzerwagen (Infrarotscheinwerfer) Uhu Mounted an Infrared searchlight for night fighting.

* Sdkfz 251/21 - Schützenpanzerwagen mit Fla MG Drilling. Equipped with a triple-mount (in the style of a "drilling" hunting gun) of MG151 autocannon; early version being MG151/15mm cannon, later being MG151/20mm Luftwaffe cannon.

* Sdkfz 251/22 - 7.5cm PaK40 L/46 auf Mittlerem Schützenpanzerwagen. Fitted with a 75 mm PaK 40 anti-tank gun.

* Sdkfz 251/23 - 2cm Hängelafette 38 auf Mittlerem Schützenpanzerwagen. Recon version, rare- same turret as a 234/1 or a 222.[citation needed]

* OT-810 - Czechoslovakian produced version, made by Praga and Tatra. This version had an air cooled diesel engine, and an armored roof over the troop compartment. The vehicle was not liked by those who used it and was nicknamed "Hitler's revenge".

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