Staff weapons, used both by foot and equestrian soldiers, are of great antiquity, but the period from 1300 was when they especially came into their own as an infantry weapon. In 1302, at the Battle of Courtrai, the Flemish townsmen from Bruges, Ypres, and Courtrai, armed, in the main, with staff weapons routed a superior and supposedly better-armed French army. The reaction to this victory, essentially by the lower and middle classes, and the large numbers of French cavalry dead, were noted throughout Europe and caused uproar among the nobles, knights, and the upper classes of society. The weapon, called a goedendag (literally “good morning” or “good day”), which caused such a devastating and unexpected victory, far from being sophisticated or innovative, was basically a heavy-headed club to which iron spikes were attached. Their use at Courtrai and, equally important, the discipline of the Flemish forces, mark the rise of the infantry armed with staff weapons as a potent force on the battlefields of Europe. This victory was followed by that of the Swiss using staff weapons at the battle of Morgarten against the Austrians in 1315. From this time on staff weapons played an increasingly important part on the battlefield—blocks of disciplined, well-trained, and well-drilled infantry, all armed with similar weapons, were common down to the seventeenth century.

The traditional infantry weapon, the spear or long spear as it became known in the fourteenth century, was around 15 to 18 feet long (5 to 6 meters) and was essentially a defensive weapon. It was used to extend the reach of the foot soldier in a thrusting motion that, when well directed, was effective against other infantry and mounted troops, especially when used in closely ordered formations. By the beginning of the fourteenth century, the spear had been joined, as already described, by other forms of staff weapons, in particular the goedendag. However, the increase in the use of armor, especially the development of the full-plate harness, led to the need for an infantry weapon that was capable of both thrusting and cutting actions. Essentially, the ability of plate armor to resist penetration, coupled with its smooth, rounded surfaces, which tended to deflect blows, meant that the thrusting spear was less effective. From the very end of the thirteenth century, there developed a new type of staff weapon, the halberd, which combined the spear with the long, two-handed axe. At first it consisted of a fairly broad blade with a spike projecting from the top secured to the end of a long pole— around 6 feet (2 meters) in length. It was used in a similar way to the spear as a thrusting weapon, but it could also be swung over the head and brought down with considerable force. During the fifteenth century, an extra spike was added to the axe portion of the head making it an even more formidable weapon.

The halberd is most closely associated with the Swiss armies of the later thirteenth and, especially, the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Swiss had been granted rights of freedom, which carried with them the right to bear arms, and this resulted in a population that carried weapons as a norm of everyday life. This familiarity with arms, especially staff weapons, resulted in the creation of a voluntary, part-time army that was both well disciplined and skilled. And, in fact, Swiss mercenaries gained a considerable reputation all over Europe during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries and were much sought after by military leaders and commanders. By the end of the fifteenth century, a very characteristic Swiss halberd had developed, although it is important to note that it was not just the weapon that made the Swiss such a formidable force but discipline and the ability to fight as a unit.

The halberd and the goedendag were joined by a variety of other staff weapons over this period, some very characteristic of particular areas and some more widely distributed around Europe. The glaive, a large cutting and thrusting weapon, had a long blade with a convex front edge and a straight back. Although it was never very common, it probably first appeared in Europe during the thirteenth century and was used throughout the end of the Middle Ages. Later, in the sixteenth century, it came to be used very much as a ceremonial weapon carried by official guards and in processions. The bill was far more commonly used throughout Europe in the later medieval period. Although there were considerable variations in its form, it generally consisted of a forward-facing hook with one or more spikes projecting from the rear and/or front. Simpler bills were very similar to halberds and were probably used in much the same way. Other, more complex types were developed. For example, the Welsh bill had a long slender curved blade and a right-angle spike, and the roncone, developed in Italy, had a long straight blade with a smaller curved hook and both top and backward-facing spikes. Finally, the partisan, a later type of staff weapon used throughout Europe from about 1500, was basically a long, flat blade tapering to a point, rather like an elongated spear.

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United States Weapons

The weapons of the U.S. soldiers in the Mexican-American War included muskets and rifles, pistols, Colt revolvers, bayonets and swords, and artillery pieces. The high quality and reliability of the U.S. weapons, and the mobility of the Flying Artillery, gave the U.S. soldiers a distinct advantage over their Mexican counterparts.

The .69-caliber, smoothbore flintlock musket was standard issue for the U.S. soldier. It had an effective range of about 100 yards. About ten different models were used during the war, the most famous being the 1822 model. Some troops also carried the Hall breech-loading flintlock rifle or the Model 1841 percussion musket (also called the “Mississippi rifle”). Relatively few men carried percussion rifles. Many officers carried double-barreled shotguns for close combat. Dragoons also occasionally were armed with breech-loading Hall carbines with a shorter barrel.

Standard sidearms were flintlock or percussion smoothbore pistols that were inaccurate beyond a range of 10 or 15 yards. Other troops, most notably officers and Texas Rangers, carried the more expensive Colt revolver. The Hartford Courant reported that “each arm is calculated to hold six charges, which may be fired in as many seconds, and again reloaded as quickly as an ordinary fire arm. The regiment of the United States Mounted Rifles, for whom a thousand of these arms have been made...can fire a volley of six thousand balls into an enemy’s ranks, without loading, and afterwards load and fire at the rate of six thousand charges per minute.” The Colt, of course, was effective only in close quarters, such as colliding cavalry charges or hand-to-hand combat. Other weapons included swords, bayonets, and Bowie knives.

The biggest U.S. weapons advantage was its artillery. U.S. guns fired cannonballs, shells (explosive charge with fuse), spherical case (container with lead balls and explosives), and canister (tin can filled with 27 lead balls packed in sawdust). Canister was effective up to about 300 yards. The artillery consisted of long-barreled cannon, howitzers (short-barreled, lightweight guns), and mortars of various weights, cast from iron or bronze. The highly trained and disciplined Flying Artillery units could fire every 10 or 15 seconds, more than five times faster than Mexican artillery. Used mostly to inflict casualties, the Flying Artillery moved rapidly to where it was most needed on the battlefield, and usually created gaping holes in the enemy lines.

Mexico Weapons

The weapons of the Mexican soldiers were typically smoothbore flintlock muskets, pistols, sabers and shorter swords, lances, and antiquated cannon. Mexican weaponry was older and less reliable than U.S. weapons, especially the older, heavier cannon and its ammunition.

Mexico, which did not own an operating armory, purchased its weapons from European dealers. Most infantrymen were outfitted with older .753-caliber, smoothbore flintlock muskets from the 1830s. The British Tower-type smoothbore musket, which the British government no longer favored, was purchased in large quantities at discount prices. Called the “Brown Bess,” its range was less than 100 yards. A lesser number of 1838-style British Baker rifles were also used, but, because they were expensive and of better quality, they were saved for the elite troops and sharpshooters. After the Battle of Cerro Gordo, George Ballentine commented that “we found the road strewed with the muskets and bayonets which the Mexicans had thrown away in their hasty retreat. All of these muskets were of British manufacture and had the Tower mark on their locks. They were old and worn out, having evidently been condemned as unserviceable in the British army and then sold to the Mexicans at a low price.... After examining a few of them I came to the conclusion that for efficient service one of our muskets was equal to at least three of them.”

The variable quality and style of muskets created a host of problems for the Mexican soldiers, especially in matching ammunition. During the Battle of Churubusco in August 1847, the Mexican soldiers were infuriated by the fact that their lead balls were too large and frequently jammed in the musket barrel. Because of inferior powder, they were also forced to overcharge their rifles, and the resulting kick made them fire high. The British Paget flintlock carbine, and the escopeta, an old-fashioned, Napoleonic variety of blunderbuss, were also used by cavalrymen.

Cavalrymen were equipped with lances, sabers, and carbines. In the hands of an experienced horseman the lance was a formidable weapon. In addition to the four cutting edges of the eight-inch blade, a flag at the tip was meant to frighten the enemy’s horse. Lancers were some of the most highly regarded units in the Mexican army, and their attacks had great shock value.

Mexican artillerymen fired the antiquated Griveaubal cannon of different calibers, for which there was limited ammunition. Mexican cannoneers, especially in the beginning of the war, favored the use of solid shot in trying to knock out opposing batteries (in comparison, the U.S. artillery strategy was to destroy groups of soldiers). Toward the end of the war, during U.S. General Winfield Scott’s march to Mexico City and Colonel Alexander Doniphan’s march to Chihuahua, some cannons were cast in local foundries. Although the artillerists were well trained, the cannon were often defective. Uneven or inferior gunpowder overshot projectiles or made them fall dangerously short. The artillery was drawn by civilian carts and drivers, or often hauled by mules—the Mexican army did not have professional teamsters.

Notes:

GATLING GUN (EARLY MGS)

CALIBER: .45

WEIGHT: 444 lbs (210 kg)

LENGTH: 59.41" (150.9 cm)

RATE OF FIRE: 1000 rpm

FEED: 240-round drum magazine

MUZZLE VELOCITY: 1,300 fps (396 mps)

ORIGINAL COUNTRY OF MANUFACTURE:

United States

FIRST PRODUCED: 1864

SUMMARY: The Gatling gun was the first successful mechanical machine gun. First used in combat during the U.S. Civil War, it went on to see service throughout the world. Richard J. Gatling began work on his invention in 1861 but did not perfect it until 1864, when it was adopted by the U.S. Army. The British Army adopted a 10-barrel version in 1874 and the Royal Navy a .65-inch version in 1875. The major feature of the Gatling gun was the revolving barrel system that allowed each barrel to cool between shots. The Gatling was a very efficient mechanism and proved to be very reliable. In the 1890s, the inventor Gatling went so far as to mount an electric motor on one of his guns, achieving an almost unbelievable rate of fire of 3,000 rpm. Gatling's concept would be resurrected during the Cold War to provide the basis for the modern minigun.

The Gatling Gun

The most famous and successful of the mechanical machine guns was invented by Richard Jordan Gatling. Rather than practice medicine after completing medical school, Gatling spent his life inventing things, including a steam plow, a mechanical rice planter, and a hemp breaker. However, it was in the area of repeating arms that Gatling made his name. In 1861, taking advantage of the progress that had been made in machine tooling, he combined the best principles of the Ager and Ripley guns (although he denied that he had been influenced by either weapon), overcoming their more objectionable features. Because of his successful designs, Gatling has generally been credited with being the progenitor of the modern mechanical machine gun.

Gatling was fully aware of the problems with heat buildup from multiple explosions in a rapidly firing weapon. To overcome this, he designed the weapon with six barrels that would be fired in turn. This ensured that with a total potential fire rate of 600 rounds per minute, each barrel would only fire 100, allowing them to cool down.

The first Gatling gun, patented in November 1862, consisted of six barrels mounted around a central axis in a revolving frame with a hopper-shaped steel container similar to the Ager. The barrels were cranked by hand. The weapon used small steel cylinders that contained a percussion cap on the end, the bullet, and paper cartridges for the charge. It was loaded by placing the steel cylinders into the hopper above the gun, which fed the rounds into the breech by gravity. As the handle was turned, the six barrels and the breech mechanism revolve, each barrel having a bolt and a firing pin controlled by a shaped groove in the casing around the breech. As the breech revolved, the bolts were opened and closed and the firing pin released from the action of studs running in the groove. When any barrel was at the topmost point of revolution, the breech bolt was fully open and as it passed beneath the hopper a loaded cylinder was dropped into the feeder. As the barrel continued to revolve, the bolt was closed, leaving the firing pin cocked; as the barrel revolved to the bottommost point, the firing pin was released and the barrel fired. Further revolution caused the bolt to open and the empty case to be ejected, just in time for the barrel to reach the top again with the bolt open, ready to collect its next cartridge and casing.

Gatling made arrangements for six weapons to be manufactured for an official test by the Union Army. Unfortunately, the factory in which the guns were being made was destroyed by fire, and the guns and all his drawings were lost. The inventor was not deterred, however, and he was able to raise enough money to manufacture 12 new guns. This time he did away with the metal cylinders, using rim-fire cartridges instead. This made the newer weapon easier to load and more reliable. Gatling boasted that the gun could be fired at the rate of 200 shots per minute.

Despite Gatling's claims, which were to be borne out by subsequent events, the Union Army failed to adopt the gun for two reasons. First, the army's chief of ordnance, Colonel John W. Ripley (later brigadier general), strongly resisted any move away from standard- issue weapons. The other reason was suspicion that Gatling's sympathies lay with the South. Although he had located his factory in Cincinnati, Ohio, Gatling had been born in North Carolina, which had joined the Confederacy. Therefore, to many among the Union leadership, his politics and sympathies were suspect. Gatling even appealed directly to President Lincoln, pointing out that his deadly invention was "providential, to be used as a means in crushing the rebellion." Despite Gatling's offer to help the North win the war, many in the Union high command felt there was something odd about a Southerner offering a new gun to the Union and thus refused to even consider Gatling's invention. The only use of the Gatling gun during the Civil War occurred when General Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts personally purchased 12 guns for $1,000 each and later put them to good use against Confederate troops besieged at Petersburg, Virginia.

In 1864, Gatling completely redesigned the gun so that each barrel was formed with its own chamber, thus doing away with the separate cylinder and its attendant gas-leak problem. The gun now fed center-fire cartridges from a magazine on top. The cartridges were gradually fed into the chamber by cams as the barrels revolved, then fired at the bottom position, and were extracted and ejected during the upward movement. As the barrel reached the top it was empty and ready to take in the next round. The great advantage of this system was that it divided the mechanical work among six barrels so that all the machinery operated at a sensible speed. By this time, Gatling had refined the gun's design considerably, increasing the rate of fire to 300 rounds per minute and improving reliability.

Gatling intensified efforts to sell the gun to the U.S. government. He published a publicity broadsheet in 1865 that informed the world that his gun bore "the same relationship to other firearms that McCormack's Reaper does to the sickle, or the sewing machine to the common needle. It will no doubt be the means of producing a great revolution in the art of warfare from the fact that a few men can perform the work of a regiment."7 At Gatling's urging, the U.S. Army finally agreed later that year to conduct a test. Pleased with the results, the Army formally adopted the Gatling gun in 1866, ordering 50 of 1-inch caliber (with six barrels) and 50 of 0.50-inch caliber (with 10 barrels). Gatling entered a contract with Colt's Patent Fire Arms Company of Hartford, Connecticut, to manufacture the guns for delivery in 1867. Gatling was so pleased with this arrangement that for as long as the U.S. government used the Gatling gun, it was manufactured by Colt.

Even though the U.S. Army had adopted the Gatling gun, there were two schools of thought among military men, both in the United States and elsewhere, about the best way to use it. One believed they should be used as artillery fire support; the other advocated its use for defending bridges and for street defense. Neither side recognized its true potential was as an infantry support weapon. This would be a recurring theme within the world's armies regarding the Gatling gun and subsequent machine guns, as doctrine and tactics failed to keep pace with technological advances.

With the Civil War over and the arms embargo enacted during the war lifted, Gatling and the Colt's Patent Fire Arms Company began marketing the weapon overseas, aggressively entering arms competitions throughout Europe. In each case, when a properly designed cartridge was used, the Gatling gun out-shot every competing design. In Great Britain, some military leaders had recommended the adoption of the machine gun, but cost considerations led Parliament to refuse to appropriate funding to develop such weapons. Nevertheless, the British Army tested Gatling's weapon at Woolwich in 1870 in competition with the Montigny Mitrailleuse, a 12- pounder breechloader firing shrapnel, a 9-pounder muzzleloader firing shrapnel, six soldiers firing Martini-Henry rifles, and six soldiers firing Snider rifles. The Gatling fired 492 pounds of ammunition and obtained 2,803 hits on various targets; the Montigny 472 pounds for 708 hits; the 12-pounder 1,232 for 2,286 hits; and the 9-pounder 1,013 pounds for 2,207 hits. The British were impressed with the Gatling's accuracy, its economy, and the fact that in timed fire it got off 1,925 rounds in 2.5 minutes. The test went so well that the British adopted the Gatling in caliber .42 for the Army and caliber .65 for the Royal Navy.

Great Britain became one of the first countries not only to recognize the utility of the Gatling gun but also to put it into action. After some initial difficulties with the new weapon during the Ashanti campaign of 1873 in the territory that is now Ghana, West Africa, the British Army wholeheartedly endorsed it. Events elsewhere in Africa contributed toward the acceptance of the Gatling gun. In South Africa on 22-23 January 1879, the British had suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Zulus under Cetshwayo at Isandlwana. In retribution for this defeat, a force of 4,000 infantrymen and 1,000 cavalry under the command of Lord Chelmsford set out to punish the Zulus. On July 4, the British, armed with two Gatling guns, engaged the Zulu warriors at Ulundi. The Gatlings wrought havoc among the Zulus, who had never gone up against such devastating fire. When the battle was over, more than 1,500 Zulus lay dead, most due to fire from the Gatlings. From then on the Gatling gun became a mainstay of British expeditionary forces in places like Egypt and the Sudan. Modern-day historian Robert L. O'Connell maintains that the Gatling and subsequently the Maxim machine gun were so popular with British colonial forces because "from an imperialist standpoint, the machine gun was nearly the perfect laborsaving device, enabling tiny forces of whites to mow down multitudes of brave but thoroughly outgunned native warriors."

Over the next few years, most major armies in Europe, as well as those in Egypt, China, and much of South America, purchased Gatling's weapon. The Russian government, preparing for war with Turkey, ordered 400 Gatlings. A Russian general was sent to the United States to oversee their manufacture and inspect the units before acceptance and shipping. With considerable cunning, he replaced the original Gatling nameplates with his own before the guns were shipped to Russia. Not surprisingly, some Russians claimed that Gatling had stolen important elements of the Gorloff model, which was called the Russian Mitrailleuse.

Despite Russian claims of originality, the Gatling was popular and saw use in many theaters. The inventor continued to work for 30 years on improvements and conducted many exhibitions throughout Europe and South America. Various models of varying calibers were introduced. By 1876, a five-barreled caliber .45 model was firing 700 rounds per minute and even up to 1,000 rounds in a short burst. By the mid-1880s, the armed forces of almost every nation in the world included Gatling guns among their inventories.

The Gatling was an effective design and remained in use until technology evolved such that a single barrel could be manufactured to withstand the heat and wear of multiple firings. After that advance, the Gatling disappeared. Before then, however, the Gatling saw long war service in countries, primarily as a instrument of colonialism, whereby small numbers of European soldiers could defeat large masses of native troops in Africa, Asia, and elsewhere.

Despite the increased firepower of the Gatling, it had some limitations technically and tactically. The multiple barrels prevented excess heat buildup, but they were also a liability due to their weight. The weapon was best used in defensive situations because it was too heavy and unwieldy to use on the attack. For that reason, Gatlings were usually relegated to the artillery to be used in batteries, rather than distributed to infantry and cavalry units. There were a few instances where this was not the case. The Americans first used the Gatling against a foreign enemy during the Spanish-American War in 1898. Under the leadership of Captain John H. "Gatling Gun" Parker, a Gatling unit was organized and employed against the Spaniards at Santiago, Cuba. Parker took it upon himself to push the guns, mounted on carriages, forward on the flanks of the attacking force, keeping up with the advancing infantry and effectively clearing a path for them. This was the first use of the machine gun for mobile fire support in offensive combat. Parker quickly became one of the pioneers in the development of a tactical doctrine built around the use of the machine gun in support of the infantry.

The Gatling gun and its inventor were way ahead of their times. It was the only weapon in history to progress from black powder to smokeless powder, from hand power to fully automatic, and eventually to an electric-drive system that allowed 3,000 rounds per minute. All this was accomplished without any change to its basic operating principle before being abandoned as obsolete in 1911. It was also a design that would have applications in the modern era.

ASTRA Model 900

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Spain's government arsenals were less committed to the manufacture of pistols than rifles, the army's primary weapon. As a result, semiautomatic pistol development in Spain initially lagged somewhat behind that in other European countries. When Spain adopted its first semiautomatic-the Pistola Bergmann de 9mm Modelo 1908-it ordered it from the Belgian firm AEP (Société Anonyme Anciens Establissement Pieper).

Despite this apparent slight to domestic gun makers, Spain had a strong tradition in the craft and eventually became an international leader in pistol production. The Spanish pistol-making industry was chiefly concentrated in the Basque towns of Eibar, Elgolibar, and Guernica and ranged from small, family-owned shops to larger companies capable of mass production. The Basque region thrived from the sale of handguns-chiefly copies of various designs by John Browning-to domestic as well as foreign customers. These pistols became known collectively, regardless of manufacturer, as Eibartype, or Ruby, pistols. World War I proved particularly profitable to the area because other European countries, most notably France and Italy, bought tens of thousands of these Spanish semiautomatics to supplement their own output. Owing to lax government proofing standards at the time, many of these pistols were of dubious quality; the reputation of Spanish pistols suffered accordingly.

During the period leading up to and including the Spanish Civil War (1936-1937), fighting between the opposing forces disrupted the region, including its arms production. After the war, Generalissimo Francisco Franco's regime exerted more control over Spain's arms makers and began a more selective and systematic approach to obtaining sidearms for the military and police. By 1940 most of the smaller makers were forced to close shop, and the large concerns of Astra, Star, and Llama dominated Spanish handgun manufacture. The reduced number of manufacturers and more stringent government inspections contributed greatly to the reemergence of Spain as a producer of pistols equal to those of other major arms-manufacturing countries.

Astra

The firm that eventually became known as Astra was founded in 1908 by the partnership of Don Juan Pedro de Unceta- Baerenechea Cendoya and Don Juan Esperanza. The production of some 50,000 6.35mm and 7.65mm Browning-type Victoria pistols began at Eibar, but operations soon shifted to Guernica. Following 1914 the company began marking its pistols using the Astra brand. During World War I Astra manufactured more than 35,000 Browning- type Ruby pistols for the French and Italians. The company then went on to develop the Campo-Giro Models 1913 and 1913/16 into its highly successful Model 1921/400 series, followed by the Models 300, 600, and 900. The forces of Francisco Franco as well as those of the Republicans used Astras during the Spanish Civil War. The factory escaped the widely condemned destruction of Guernica by the Germans' infamous Condor Legion bombing attack of 25 April 1937.

Campo-Giro Model 1913 and 1913-1916

Early Spanish military semiautomatics, although somewhat heavy, were well-made and reliable. In 1904 a former Spanish Army officer, Don Venancio Lopez de Ceballos y Aguirre, Conde del Campo-Giro, patented an autoloader that he developed at the government's Fabrica de Armas Portátiles de Oviedo. Campo-Giro's was a locked-breech design chambered for the Model 1908's powerful 9mm Bergmann-Bayard cartridge (known as the 9mm Largo in Spain). Campo-Giro continued to refine his pistol and by 1912 had discarded the pistol's locked-breech mechanism in favor of a simpler blowback design. Esperanza y Unceta manufactured the new pistol, known as the Campo-Giro Model 1913.

As most blowback weapons were designed for weaker cartridges, the Model 1913 and its successors were fitted with a very stiff spring coiled around the barrel to absorb the recoil. The recoil spring thus required considerable effort to pull the slide rearward to cock the weapon for a first shot. The Model 1913 was loaded with an eight-round magazine fitted in the base of the grip. A thumb-operated safety was located on the left of the pistol. Three years after introducing the Model 1913, Unceta brought out a slightly improved model, the Model 1913-1916. Slightly more than 14,000 of both types were manufactured, and further development ceased following Campo-Giro's accidental death soon after their introduction (Ezell 1981: 539).

Astra Model 400/ Model 1921

Esperanza y Unceta continued to develop Campo-Giro's pistol and submitted the reworked design to the Spanish military in 1920. Known as the Astra Model 400 in its civilian form and designated the Pistola de 9 millimetros modelo 1921 (Model 1921) for military use, the new Astra offered a very unique feature. Rather than accepting a single type of cartridge, the Model 1921/400 was chambered to fire both the 9mm Largo and 9mm Parabellum cartridges. Moreover, under emergency circumstances it could also accommodate 9mm Steyr, 9mm Browning Long, and the .38 Super Automatic cartridges. Among some circles this unusual ability earned the pistol a rather unflattering nickname: the "Ashcan." Such versatility was, however, an advantage during wartime when the availability of proper ammunition is sometimes tenuous.

The commercial Model 400 is most readily distinguishable from the military Model 1921 in that most Model 400s are fitted with hard rubber grips (most military pistols had wood grips). Civilian pistols are also somewhat better-finished and often have nickel- or chrome-plated minor components. Both models are equipped with manual, grip, and magazine safeties. Typical markings on the tubular shaped slide include the Astra starburst logo on the top and either "ESPERANZA Y UNCETA" or "UNCETA Y COMPANIA, GUERNICA ESPANA" and "PISTOLA DE 9M/M MODELO 1921." The insignia of the various Spanish military and police organizations indicate the issue of Spanish government-owned pistols. During the Spanish Civil War the Republicans also produced Model 1921 copies marked "RE" (Republica Española, or "Spanish Republic"). The French Army and Chilean Navy procured small quantities of Model 1921s, and the German Wehrmacht purchased approximately 6,000. Total production of the Model 400 and Model 1921 was 106,175 (Ezell, 1981: p. 558). The Modelo 400 remained in Spanish service until 1950.

Model 300 In 1922

Astra scaled down the Model 400 to chamber the 9mm Browning (.380 ACP or 9mm kurz) cartridges to produce the Model 300 for issue to Spanish prison personnel. The next year the company also began producing the pistol in 7.65mm (.32 ACP) for civilian and export sales. In 1928 the Spanish Navy adopted the Model 300 in its 9mm chambering. The company made 171,300 Model 300s until production ceased in 1947. During World War II the German Luftwaffe purchased 63,000 pistols in caliber 9mm kurz and an additional 22,390 in 7.65mm. The Nazi designation for the Model 300 was Pistole Astra 300.

Model 600

The later Astra Model 600 also bore a strong resemblance to the Model 400 but was not accepted by the Spanish Army. Owing to the close ties between the Spanish dictator, Francisco Franco, and Adolf Hitler, however, Nazi forces acquired approximately 10,450 of the Model 600 in 9mm Parabellum. The Nazi designation for the Model 600 was Pistole Astra 600/43, with those issued to the West German police after the war being designated the P3.

Model 900 series

The severe arms limitations imposed on Germany by the Versailles Treaty crippled such companies as Mauser's export trade yet provided Spanish makers, including Astra, new opportunities. Eastern warlords, especially in China, were particularly fond of the Mauser Model 1896 Broomhandle and were eager to acquire more. Astra thus stepped in with the Model 900, chambered for the 7.63mm Mauser cartridge, very similar in appearance to the Broomhandle, and equipped with a wood shoulder stock/holster rig. Although the Model 900 shares the Broomhandle's looks and 10-round integral magazine, it is internally quite different. Astra simplified the internal design of the Model 900 to make it more economical to manufacture and modified its locking system. A screwed-on side plate allowed internal access (avoiding Mauser's method of inserting the entire mechanism in one unit through the back of the pistol frame). Production of the Model 900 continued from 1928 until the Spanish Civil War interrupted Astra's operations in 1937.

In 1928 Astra also began manufacturing selective-fire versions of the Model 900-the Models 901 and 902. The actual military value of such selective-fire pistol-carbines as the Astras and Mauser Schnellfeuer is often the subject of debate-the light weight of the weapons combined with their rapid rate of fire rendered them all but impossible to accurately aim after the first shot. The continued recoil of the weapon then tended to push the barrel ever higher until the last shot of the burst was launched at a 90-degree angle to the first. By that point the magazine had typically been emptied owing to its small capacity and the pistol's blazing cyclic rate. Still, such pistols appealed to the more dramatic sort and enjoyed a certain popularity during the period.

The selective-fire pistols have slightly larger hammers and grips than the Model 900 and are fitted with a firing-mode selector lever on the right side of the frame above the trigger. Pressing the lever down allows full-automatic fire, with the upper position providing semiautomatic use. The longer-barreled Model 903 appeared in 1932 and can accept either 10- or 20-round detachable magazines. The Model F was intended to arm Spain's Guardia Civil (Civil Guard) and as such is chambered for the country's official caliber 9mm Largo cartridge. Only 950 were delivered before Basque forces captured the factory in 1936. The Model F's greatest improvement over the earlier selective-fires consists of a flywheel device in its grip that lowers the pistol's cyclic rate from 900 to 350 rounds per minute. The reduction of the firing rate lessens the tendency of the pistol to climb during full-automatic fire and thus aids accuracy.

Royal

Two brothers, Juan and Cosme Beistegui, established Beistegui Hermanos in 1909. During World War I the brothers produced Rubytype pistols for France and Italy and in 1926 began manufacturing selective-fire copies of the Mauser Broomhandle for the Chinese market under the brand name Royal. The Royal shares the Broomhandle's caliber 7.63mm cartridge and wood shoulder stock/holster but, like the Astra, was easier to manufacture. It incorporated a cylindrical bolt rather than the Mauser's squared bolt and was manufactured with 10- and 20-round integral magazines as well as models accepting 10-, 20-, and 30-round detachable magazines. A later model was also fitted with a mechanism to retard its cyclic rate. Beistegui Hermanos manufactured about 23,000 Royals before the factory was destroyed in 1937.

Star Modelo Militar 1920

José-Cruz Echeverria and his son, Bonifacio, of Eibar manufactured Ruby-type pistols for France and Italy during World War I before adopting the Star trade name in 1919. The firm then made its first foray into the military market with the Star Modelo Militar 1920, a design based on the Colt-Browning swinging link system and chambered for the 9mm Largo cartridge. The pistol's appearance is also highly derivative of the U.S. design and, other than its lack of a grip safety, looks very much like the Colt Model 1911. The pistol's safety, mounted on the back of the slide, was at least somewhat original to Echeverria and blocks the hammer and firing pin. Although disappointed by a lack of interest by the Spanish Army, Star did win a contract for the Model Militar 1920 with the Guardia Civil. Slide markings are generally "BONIFACIO ECHEVERRIA, S.A.-EIBAR-ESPAÑA STAR."

Star Model 1921 and 1922

Although generally pleased with the Modelo Militar 1920, the Guardia Civil objected to the slide-mounted safety and requested suitable modifications. Star responded quickly and soon followed the Modelo Militar 1920 with the Model 1921, a pistol that incorporated a frame-mounted safety as well as a grip safety. The grip safety, however, proved unpopular with Guardia Civil officers, forcing Star to resubmit the design without the safety as the Model 1922. The Model 1922 at last satisfied the Guardia Civil. Designating it the Model A, Star also offered the new pistol on the civilian market. Star continued to improve the design with the Model 1931, adding a curved and checkered back strap to provide a more comfortable grip and giving the pistol an even closer resemblance to the Colt Model 1911. Following the Spanish Civil War the pistol was redesignated the Model 1940 and in 1946 replaced the Astra Model 1921 (Model 400) in Spanish Army service. The improved Super Star was used by a number of South American nations and remained in Spanish service until production ended in 1983. In keeping with the Spanish fascination with full-automatic handguns, Star also offered a selective-fire version of the Model 1922 equipped with a wood shoulder stock/holster and available in a variety of calibers.

Llama Pistola Automatica Llama 9mm Marque IX

Gabilondo y Urresti began business in 1904 in Guernica. The company then moved to Elgolibar after producing as many as 200,000 of the obligatory Ruby pistols for France and Italy during World War I. Later, under its new name, Gabilondo y Compañia, the company manufactured and marketed a number of Browning-derived pistols during the 1920s and 1930s. These included a 7.65mm (.32 ACP) selective-fire model that found some acceptance in the Chinese market, with a small number going to Japanese air forces (Ezell 1981: 564). The 9mm Llama Especial also saw use with Nationalist troops during the Spanish Civil War (Hogg 2001: 62). During the 1930s Gabilondo y Compañia continued its expansion by manufacturing quality copies of the Colt Model 1911 in various calibers under the brand name Llama. A typical pistol of the World War II period, the Pistola Automatica Llama 9mm Marque IX was chambered in 9mm Largo for Spanish military and police use. It was also used by various other powers, primarily in South America, in 9mm Parabellum and 9mm Short.